Monday 25 November 2013

natural vegetation ............ Anuj Sarwan


NATURAL VEGETATION
 
India is situated at tropical latitudes and has diverse temperature and rainfall regimes. The overall climate of India is suitable for the growth of forests. The climax formations of Indian subcontinent have been altered much due to human activities in the last few thousand years. However, the remaining vegetation shows that the natural vegetation of India primarily consists of forests. The grasslands found in the region are not natural plant formations but have originated secondarily due to destruction of natural forests in some places. Therefore, these represent various stages of seral (successional) development due to the influence of a variety of biotic influences.

FORESTS OF INDIA
The most important factors influencing the physiognomy, species composition, phenology etc. of Indian forests are temperature, rainfall, local edaphic and biotic factors. These factors have been used in the classification of Indian forests. Most detailed classification of Indian forests is by Champion and Seth (1967) in which 16 major types of forests have been recognized. These 16 major types can be grouped into 5 major categories viz. moist tropical, dry tropical, montane sub-tropical, temperate and alpine forests.
Forest cover in india
 
(A) MOIST TROPICAL FORESTS
These forests are found in the areas of quite high temperature and rainfall. The forests are dense, multi-layered and have many types of trees, shrubs and lians. These forests are further categorized into 4 types depending on the degree of wetness in the area and the dominant life form in the forest.
(1)  Tropical moist evergreen forests
These are climatic climax forests found commonly in areas having annual rainfall above 250 cm and temperature 25-30oC. These forests are chiefly distributed on the western face of Western Ghats, Assam, Cachar, parts of West Bengal, northern Canara, Annamalai Hills and Coorg in Meysore and Andman Islands.
The characteristic feature of these forests is dense growth of very tall trees having height of more than 45 m. Climbers, lians, epiphytes and shrubs are abundant but herbs and grasses are rare in these forests. The carpet layer of herbs and grasses can not grow because very dense layer of leaf canopy of trees does not allow enough light to reach to the ground.
Dominant trees in forests of west coast are Dipterocarpus indica, Palaquim and Cellenia while in forests of Assam Diptercarpus macrocarpus, D. turbinatus, Shorea assamica, Mesua ferrea and Kayea are the dominant trees.
Common subdominants in these forests are Mangifera, Eugenia, Myristica, Pterospermum, Polyalthia, Elaeocarpus, Schlechera, Artocarpus, Memeocylon, Poeciloneuron, Cinnamomum, Diospyros, Sapindus, Vitex, Holigarna, Alstonia, Hardwickia, Spondias, Dendrocalamus, Calamus, Bombax, Veteria, Calophyllum, Pandanus, Cedrela, Tetrameles, Strobilanthes, Emblica, Michelia, Ixora, Hopea, Lagerstroemia, several species of ferns and orchids.
(2) Tropical moist semi-evergreen forests
These are also climatic climax forests found commonly in areas of annual rainfall 200-250 cm and temperature 25-32oC.These forests a







re chiefly distributed along the Western Ghats, in upper parts of Assam and Orissa and in Andman Islands. These forests are more developed in the northern India than in southern India.
Characteristic feature of these forests is dense growth of evergreen trees intermixed with deciduous trees that shed their leaves for very brief period of relative dryness. Average height of trees in these forests is 25-35 m and shrubs are common. Forests have rich carpet layer of herbs, grasses ferns and orchids.
Dominant trees in these forests are Dipterocarpus alatus, Hopea, Terminalia and Salmalia in Andman Island; Artocarpus, Micheliaand Mangifera in Orissa;Schima wallichii, Bauhinia, Phobe and Ammora in Assam.
Common subdominants in these forests are Mylia, Schleichera, Bambusa, Ixora, Calamus, Sterculia, Webera, Strobilanthus, Cedrela, Shorea, Actinodaphne, Garcinia, Lagerstroemia, Mallotus, Vernonia, Dendrocalamus, Pelvetta, Elattaria, Pothos, Vitis, Garuga, Albizzia and Dellenia. Common herbs and grasses in the ground (carpet) layer are Inula, Andropogon, Crotolaria, Imperata, Leca, Desmodium, Fambosa and Woodfordia.
(3) Tropical moist deciduous forests
These forests are found in the area having temperature of 25-30oC and quite high annual rainfall of 150-200 cm spread over most of the year but periods of rain alternating with very short periods of dryness. In several areas, the forests have been converted into open savannahs due to intensive biotic factors. These forests are chiefly distributed in a narrow belt along Himalayan foothills, on the eastern side of Western Ghats, Chota Nagpur, Khasi hills, in moist areas of Kerala, Karnataka, sothern Madhya Pradesh, parts of northern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.
Chief characteristic of these forests is dominance of deciduous trees that remain leafless for one or two months only along with lower story of smaller trees and evergreen shrubs.
Dominant trees of these forests in north India are Tectona grandis, Shorea robusta, Salmella, and Dalbergia while in south India only Tectona grandisand Shorea sp. are dominant.
Common subdominants in the forests are Cedrela, Albizzia, Terminalia, Adina, Melia, Sterculia, Grewia, Gariya, Lagerstroemia, Cordia, Pongamia, Bambusa, Dendrocalamus, Chloris, Mallotus, Anogeissus, heteropogon, Cymbopogon and Andropogon.
(4) Littoral and swamp forests
These forests are found in wet marshy areas, in river deltas, in saline or other swampy areas and along the sea coasts. They are chiefly distributed in deltas of large rivers on the eastern coast and in pockets on the western coast (Tidal forests), in saline swamps of Sundarban in West Bengal, coastal areas of Andhra and Orissa (Mangrove forests) and in less saline or non-saline swampy pockets throughout the India.
Chief characteristic of these forests is dominance of halophytic evergreen plants of varying height with varying density of plants in different area.
Dominant plants of tidal and mangrove forests are Rhizophora, Bruguiera, Ceriops, Horitora, Avicennia, Nipa, Sonneratia and Acanthus. In less saline swamps, dominant plants are Ipomea, Phoenix, Phragmitis, Casuarina, Manilkara and Calophyllum. In other swamps, the dominant plants are Barringtonia, Syzygium, Myristica, Bischofia, Trowia, Lagerstroemia, Sophora, Pandanus, Entada and Premna.

(B) DRY TROPICAL FORESTS
These forests are found in the areas where wet season is followed by a relatively long period of dryness during which trees remain leafless. These forests are dominated by smaller trees and shrubs and have abundance of shrubs or sometimes grasses. This category includes three types of forests.
(1) Tropical dry deciduous forests
These forests are found in areas having temperature of 25-32oC and annual rainfall of 75-125 cm along with a dry season of about six months. Distribution of these forests in northern India is in areas of Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa. In the southern and central India, these forests are distributed in dry areas of Maharashtra, Tamilnadu, Karnataka and Madhya Pradesh.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests is open canopy of small (10-15 m high) trees and abundance of shrubs.
Dominant species of the forests in north India are Shorea robusta, anogeissus, Terminalia, Buchnnania, Somocarpus, Carissa, Emblica, Madhuca, Acacia, Aegle, Diospyros, Bauhinia, Eugenia, Zyzyphus, Lannea, Sterculia, Dendrocalamus, Salmelia, Adina, Grewia, Adathoda and Helicteres. In south India, dominant plants are Tectona grandis, Dalbergia, Kydia, Terminalia, Pterospermum, Dillenia, Acacia, Diospyros, Anogeissus, Boswellia, Bauhinia, Chloroxylon, Hardwickia, Soymida, Gymnosporia, Zyzyphus, Dendrocalamus and Holorrhena.
Subdominant species in these forests are Bambusa, Lantana and grasses like Panicum, Andropogon and Heteropogon.
(2) Tropical thorn forests
These forests are found in the areas of high temperature of 27-30oC and very low annual rainfall of 20-60 cm with long periods of dryness. These forests are distributed in western Rajasthan, parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Tamilnadu.
Chief charateristic of such forests is sparse distribution of small (8-10 m high) mostly thorny trees with shrubs being more common than trees. The plants in these forests remain leafless for most of the year. They develop leaves only during the brief rainy season when grasses and herbs also become abundant.
Dominant plants in these forests are Acacia nilotica, A. leucophloea, A. senegal, Prosopis spicigera, P. juliflora, Albizzia and Capparis.
Common subdominant plants are Zyzyphus, Anogeissus, Erythroxylon, Euphorbia, Cordia, Randia, Balanites, Salvadora, Gymnosporis, Leptadenia, Suaeda, Grewia, Gymnoma, Asparagus, Butea, Calotropis, Adathoda, Madhuca, Salmelia, Crotolaria, Tephrosia and Indigophera.
(3) Tropical dry evergreen forests
These forests are found in the areas of relatively high temperature and small rainfall available only during summers. The forests are distributed in some parts of Tamilnadu and Karnataka.
Chief characteristic features of the forests are dense distribution of mixed small evergreen and deciduous trees of 10-15 m height, absence of bamboos and abundance of grasses.
Dominant plants in the forests are Memecylon, Maba, Pavetta, Foronia, Terminalia, Ixora, Sterculia, Mesua and Schleichora.
(C) MONTANE SUBTROPICAL FORESTS
These forests occur in the areas where climate is cooler than tropical but warmer than temperate areas i.e. on the hills between the altitudes of 1000 m and 2000 m. The forests are dominated by semi-xerophytic evergreen plants. This category includes three types of forests.
(1) Sub-tropical broad-leaved hill forests
These forests occur in relatively moist areas at lower altitudes on mountain ranges. Their chief distribution is in eastern Himalayas of West Bengal and Assam , hills of Khasi, Nilgiri and Mahabaleshwar.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests is dense growth of evergreen browd-leaved trees with abundant growth of climbers and epiphytic ferns and orchids.
Dominant trees in the forests of north are Quercus, Schima and Castanopsis with some temperate species. In the southern areas, dominants are Eugeniaand members of family Lauraceae.
Common co-dominants and subdominants in the eastern Himalayas are Dalbergia sissoo, Acacia, catachu, Sterospermum, Cedrela toona, Bauhinia, Anthocephalus cadamba, Lagerstroemia parviflora, Albizzia procera, Salmella, Artocarpus chaplasha and Dendrocalamus. In the western Himalayas, codominants and subdominants are Shorea robusta, Dalbergia sissoo, Cedrela toona, Ficus glomerulata, Eugenia jambolina, Acacia catachu, Butea monosperma, Carissa and Zizyphus. Other common plants in these forests of both north and south India are Actinodaphne, Randia, Glochidion, Terminalia, Olea, Eleagnus, Murraya, Atylosia, Ficus, Pittosporum, Saccopetalum, Carreya, Alnus, Betula, Phobe, Cedrela, Garcinia and Polulus. In the south, Mangifera and Canthium and climers like Piper trichostachyon, Gnetum scandens and Smilax macrophylla are also common.
(2) Sub-tropical dry evergreen forests
These forests occur in areas having quite low temperature and rainfall. The forests are distributed in the lower altitudes of eastern and western Himalayas.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests is presence of thorny xerophytes and small-leaved evergreen plants.
Dominant plants in the forests are Acacia modesta, Dodonea viscosa and Olea cuspidata.
(3) Sub-tropical pine forests
These forests occur at middle altitudes between 1500-2000 m in Himalayas. They are distributed in western Himalayas from Kashmir to Uttar Pradesh. In eastern Himalayas, the forests occur in Khasi Jayantia Hills of Assam.
Chief characteristics of the forests in open formations of pine trees.
Dominant trees in the forests are P. roxburghii and Pinus khasiana.
(D) TEMPERATE FORESTS
These forests are found in the areas having quite low temperature along with comparatively high humidity than the comparable areas of higher latitudes. The cause of high humidity is greater rainfall in Himalayas except in parts of Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir where humidity is lower. The forests occur mainly in the Himalayas at altitudes 2000-4000 m. The forests are generally dominated by tall conifers or angiospermic evergreen trees with abundance of epiphytic mosses, lichens and ferns. The category includes three types of forests.
(1) Wet temperate forests
These forests are found at altitudes of 1800-3000 m in the cooler and humid mountains. They are distributed in the eastern Himalayas from eastern Nepal to Assam, in the western Himalayas from Kashmir to western Nepal and in Nilgiri Hills of south Indian.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests in the Himalayas is dense formation of evergreen, semievergreen broad-leaved and coniferous trees of up to 25 m height. In south India, these forests are termed Shola forests and mostly have 15-20 m high broad-leaved trees with dense leaf canopy, abundant epiphytic flora and rich herbaceous undergrowth.
Dominant trees in the forests of western Himalayas are angiosperms like Quercus, Betula, Acer, Ulmus, Populus, Corylus, Caprinus etc. and conifers likeAbies, Picea, Cedrus etc. In eastern Himalayas, dominants are Quercus, Acer, Prunus, Ulmus, Eurya, Machilus, Symplocos, Mahonia, Begonia, Michelia, Thunbergia, Rhododendron, Arundinaria, Bucklandia, Pittosporum, Loranthus, Tsug and, Abies. In the Nilgiri Hills, the dominants are Rhododendron nilagiricum, Hopea, Balanocarpus, Artocarpus, Artocarpus, Elaeocarpus, Pterocarpus, Hardwickia, Myristica, Cordonia, Salmalia, Mucuna and Dioscorea. In all the areas, the undergrowth is formed by members of Asteraceae, Rubiaceae, Acanthaceae and Fabaceae.






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(2) Himalayan moist temperate forests
These forests are found at 1700-3500 m altitude in eastern and western Himalayas. These occur in areas having annual rainfall above 100 cm but relatively less than that in areas of wet temperate forests.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests is presence of tall (up to 45 m high) conifers, oaks or their mixture along with thin partly deciduous undergrowth.
Dominant trees in the eastern Himalayas are Tsuga dumosa, Quercus lineata, Picea spinulosa, Abies densa and Quercus pachyphylla. In the western Himalayas, dominants in lower zones are Quercus incana, . dialata, Cedrus deodara, Pinus wallichiana, Picea smithiana, Abies pindrew, Cotoneaster,Berberis and Spire while in the higher zones the dominants are Quercus semicarpifolia and Abies pindrew.
(3) Himalayan dry temperate forests
These forests occur in the regions of Himalayas having very low rainfall. They are distributed in both eastern and western Himalayas.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests is dominance of evergreen oaks and conifers. Undergrowth is formed by scrubs.
Dominant trees in the forests of comparatively drier western Himalayas are Pinus gerardiana and Quercus ilex. In the comparatively wetter western Himalayan region, the dominants are Abies, Picea, Larix griffithia and Juniperus wallichiana.
Subdominant plants in these forests are Daphne, Artemesia, Fraxinus, Alnus, Cannabis and Plectranthus.
 (E) ALPINE FORESTS
These forests are found in the regions of Himalayas having extremely low temperature and humidity. The forests are dominated by perennial and annual herbs and grasses though some trees may also be present in areas of relatively high humidity. Abundant lichen flora is characteristic feature of these forests. This category includes three types of forests.
(1) Sub-alpine forests
These forests are found in open strands throughout the Himalayas between the altitude 3500 m and the tree tine.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests is presence of some evergreen conifers and broad-leaved trees along with prominent shrub layer.
Dominant trees in the forests are Abies spectabilis, Rhododendron and Betula. Prominent shrubs in the forests are Cotoneaster, Rosa, Smilax, Loniceraand Strobilanthus.
(2) Moist alpine scrub forests
These forests are found in the Himalayas above the tree line up to 5500 m altitude in somewhat moist areas.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests is dominance of dwarf, evergreen shrubby conifers and broad-leaved trees along with prominent shrub layer under them.
Dominant trees in the forests are Juniperus and Rhododendron while prominent shrubs are Thalictrum, Lonicera, Saxifraga, Arenaria, Bergia, Sedum andPrimula.
(3) Dry alpine forests
These forests are found in comparatively more dry areas of Himalayas upto 5500 m altitude.
Chief characteristic feature of the forests is open formation of xerophytic scrubs with many herbs and grasses.
Dominant plants in the forests are Juniperus, Caragana, Eurctia, Salix and Myricaria.

GRASSLANDS OF INDIA
The grasslands of India are not of primary origin. These have originated secondarily in many areas due to destruction of natural forests by biotic interference, particularly due to excessive grazing and land clearing for agriculture. These grasslands are maintained in various seral (successional) stages by a variety of biotic factors.






  
Biosphere reserves of India

 [1
The Indian government has established 18 Biosphere Reserves in India,[2] (categories roughly corresponding to IUCN Category V Protected areas), which protect larger areas of natural habitat (than a National Park or Animal Sanctuary), and often include one or more National Parks and/or preserves, along buffer zones that are open to some economic uses. Protection is granted not only to the flora and fauna of the protected region, but also to the human communities who inhabit these regions, and their ways of life.
Contents
Name
States
Year
2000
2001
West Bengal
2001
2004
2009
2009
2008
2012[3]
Sid
2013[5]
List of Biosphere Reserves[edit]
In 2009, India designated Cold Desert of Himachal Pradesh as a biosphere reserve. On September 20, 2010, the Ministry of Environment and Forests designated Seshachalam Hills as the 17th biosphere reserve. Panna (Madhya Pradesh) was scheduled to become the 18th on August 25, 2011.[2]

Biosphere reserves of India (area wise)
Year
Name
Location
State
Type
Key Fauna
Area (km²)
1
2008
Part of KutchRajkotSurendranagar and Patan Districts
12454
2
1989
Indian part of Gulf of Mannar extending from Rameswaram island in the North to Kanyakumari in the South of Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka
10500
3
1989
Part of delta of Ganges and Barahamaputra river system
9630
4
2009
Pin Valley National Park and surroundings;Chandratal and Sarchu & Kibber Wildlife Sancturary
WesternHimalayas
7770
5
1988
5860
6
1986
5520
7
1998
Part of Siang and Dibang Valley
5112
8
1999
4981.72
9
2010
Seshachalam Hill Ranges covering parts of Chittoor and Kadapa districts
4755
10
1994
4374
11
2005
Part of AnnupurDindori and Bilaspur districts
3835
12
1989
2837
13
2000
2620
14
2001
NeyyarPeppara and Shenduruny Wildlife Sanctuary and their adjoining areas
1828
15
1989
Southern most islands of Andaman and Nicobar Islands
885
16
1988
Part of Garo Hills
820
17
1997
765
18
2011
Part of Panna and Chattarpur Districts
543
Potential sites for Biosphere Reserves
Following is the list of potential sites for Biosphere Reserves as selected by Ministry of Forests and Environment:
·         Namdapha, Arunachal Pradesh
·         Thar Desert, Rajasthan
·         Little Rann of Kutch, Gujarat
·         Kavalam, Assam
·         Kanha, Madhya Pradesh
·         North Islands of Andaman and Nicobar
·         Abujmarh, Chhattisgarh
·         Chintapalli, Andhra Pradesh
·         Lakshadweep Islands, Lakshadweep
·         Singhbhum
·         Seshachallam
·         Blue Mountain
·         Tawang and West Kamang


Wildlife of India


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India has the largest wild population of tigers in the world.

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The most endangered Indian top predator of 2010, the dhole is on edge of extinction. Less than 2500 members of the species remain in the world.

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Snowleopard is an endangered species found along the Himalayas
The Wildlife in India is a mix of species of different types of organisms.[1] Apart from a handful of the major farm animals such as cows, buffaloes, goats, poultry and sheep, India has an amazingly wide variety of animals native to the country. It is home to TigersLionsLeopardsPythonsWolvesFoxes,BearsCrocodilesRhinocerosesCamelsWild dogsMonkeysSnakesAntelope species, Deer species, varieties of bison and not to mention the mighty Asian elephant. The region's rich and diverse wildlife is preserved in 89 national parks, 18 Bio reserves and 400+ wildlife sanctuaries across the country.India has some of the most biodiverse regions of the world and hosts three of the world’s 34 biodiversity hotspots – or treasure-houses – that is the Western Ghats, the Eastern Himalayas and Indo- Burma.[2] Since India is home to a number of rare and threatened animal species, wildlife management in the country is essential to preserve these species.[3] According to one study, India along with 17 mega diverse countries is home to about 60-70 % of the world's biodiversity.[4]
India, lying within the Indomalaya ecozone, is home to about 7.6% of all mammalian, 12.6% of avian, 6.2% of reptilian, and 6.0% of flowering plantspecies.[5] Many ecoregions, such as the shola forests, also exhibit extremely high rates of endemism; overall, 33% of Indian plant species are endemic.[6][7] India's forest cover ranges from the tropical rainforest of the Andaman IslandsWestern Ghats, and Northeast India to the coniferous forest of the Himalaya. Between these extremes lie the sal-dominated moist deciduous forest of eastern India; teak-dominated dry deciduous forest of central and southern India; and the babul-dominated thorn forest of the central Deccan and western Gangetic plain.[8] Important Indian trees include the medicinalneem, widely used in rural Indian herbal remedies. The pipal fig tree, shown on the seals of Mohenjo-daro, shaded the Gautama Buddha as he sought enlightenment.
Many Indian species are descendants of taxa originating in Gondwana, to which India originally belonged. Peninsular India's subsequent movementtowards, and collision with, the Laurasian landmass set off a mass exchange of species. However, volcanism and climatic change 20 million years ago caused the extinction of many endemic Indian forms.[9] Soon thereafter, mammals entered India from Asia through two zoogeographical passes on either side of the emerging Himalaya.[8] As a result, among Indian species, only 12.6% of mammals and 4.5% of birds are endemic, contrasting with 45.8% of reptiles and 55.8% of amphibians.[5] Notable endemics are the Nilgiri leaf monkey and the brown and carmine Beddome's toad of the Western Ghats. India contains 172, or 2.9%, of IUCN-designated threatened species.[10] These include the Asiatic lion, the Bengal tiger, and the Indian white-rumped vulture, which suffered a near-extinction from ingesting the carrion of diclofenac-treated cattle.
In recent decades, human encroachment has posed a threat to India's wildlife; in response, the system of national parks and protected areas, first established in 1935, was substantially expanded. In 1972, India enacted the Wildlife Protection Act and Project Tiger to safeguard crucial habitat; further federal protections were promulgated in the 1980s. Along with over 500 wildlife sanctuaries, India now hosts 15 biosphere reserves, four of which are part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves25 wetlands are registered under the Ramsar Convention.
The varied and rich wildlife of India has had a profound impact on the region's popular culture. The common name for wilderness in India is Jungle, which was adopted into the English language. The word has been also made famous in The Jungle Book by Rudyard Kipling. India's wildlife has been the subject of numerous other tales and fables such as the Panchatantra and the
Fauna
The endangered Black buck at theUndying National Park within the Chennaimetropolis

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One of the world's rarest monkeys,Gee's Golden Langur typifies the precarious survival of much of India's mega fauna.
India is home to several well-known large mammals, including the Asian ElephantBengal TigerAsiatic Lion,LeopardSloth Bear and Indian Rhinoceros. Some other well-known large Indian mammals are: ungulates such as the rare Wild Asian Water buffalo, common Domestic Asian Water buffaloGailGar, and several species of deer and antelope. Some members of the dog family, such as the Indian WolfBengal Fox and Golden Jackal, and the Dhole or Wild Dogs are also widely distributed. However, the dole, also known as the whistling hunter,is the most endangered top Indian carnivore, and the Himalayan Wolf is now a critically endangered species endemic to India.[citation needed] It is also home to the Striped HyenaMacaquesLanguors and Mongoosespecies.
Conservation of wildlife



The need for conservation of wildlife in India is often questioned because of the apparently incorrect priority in the face of direct poverty of the people. However, Article 48 of the Constitution of India specifies that, "The state shall endeavour to protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of the country" and Article 51-A states that "it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures."[11]
Large and charismatic mammals are important for wildlife tourism in India, and several national parks and wildlife sanctuaries cater to these needs.Project Tiger, started in 1972, is a major effort to conserve the tiger and its habitats.[12] At the turn of the 20th century, one estimate of the tiger population in India placed the figure at 40,000, yet an Indian tiger census conducted in 2008 revealed the existence of only 1,411 tigers. 2010 Tiger census revealed that there are 1700 tigers left in India.[13] The passing of the Forest Rights Actby the Indian government in 2008 has been the final nail in the coffin and has pushed the Indian tiger to the verge of extinction. Various pressures in the later part of the 20th century led to the progressive decline of wilderness resulting in the disturbance of viable tiger habitats. At the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) General Assembly meeting in Delhi in 1969, serious concern was voiced about the threat to several species of wildlife and the shrinkage of wilderness in India. In 1970, a national ban on tiger hunting was imposed, and in 1972 the Wildlife Protection Act came into force. The framework was then set up to formulate a project for tiger conservation with an ecological approach.
Launched on 1 April 1973, Project Tiger has become one of the most successful conservation ventures in modern history. The project aims at tiger conservation in specially constituted 'tiger reserves' which are representative of various bio-geographical regions falling within India. It strives to maintain a viable tiger population in their natural environment. Today, there are 39 Project Tiger wildlife reserves in India covering an area more than of 37,761 km².
Project Elephant, though less known, started in 1992 and works for elephant protection in India.[14] Most of India's rhinos today survive in the Kaziranga National Park.


·       
Recent extinctions

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Illustration of a Himalayan Quail from A. O. Hume's work. Last seen in 1876
The exploitation of land and forest resources by humans along with hunting and trapping for food and sport has led to the extinction of many species in India in recent times. These species include mammals such as the Indian/Asiatic CheetahWild ZebuJavan Rhinoceros, and Sumatran Rhinoceros.[15] While some of these large mammal species are confirmed extinct, there have been many smaller animal and plant species whose status is harder to determine. Many species have not been seen since their description.
Some species of birds have gone extinct in recent times, including the Pink-headed Duck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea) and the Himalayan Quail(Ophrysia superciliosa). A species of warbler, Acrocephalus orinus, known earlier from a single specimen collected by Allan Octavian Hume from near Rampur in Himachal Pradesh, was rediscovered after 139 years in Thailand.[16][17]
Fungi of India
The diversity of fungi[18] and their natural beauty occupy a prime place in the biological world and India has been a cradle for such organisms. Only a fraction of the total fungal wealth of India has been subjected to scientific scrutiny and mycologists have to unravel this unexplored and hidden wealth. One-third of fungal diversity of the globe exists in India. The country has an array of 10 diverse biomes including Trans-Himalayan zone, Himalaya, Desert, Semi-Arid zone, Western Ghats, Deccan Peninsula, Gangetic Plain, North-Eastern India, Coasts and Islands where varied dominating regimes manifest. This enables the survival of manifold fungal flora in these regions which include hot spot areas like the Himalayan ranges, Western Ghats, hill stations, mangroves, sea coasts, fresh water bodies etc. Many fungi have been recorded from these regions and from the country in general comprising thermophiles, psychrophiles, mesophiles, aquatic forms, marine forms, plant and animal pathogens, edible fungi and beneficial fungi and so on. The number of fungi recorded in India exceeds 27,000 species, the largest biotic community after insects. The true fungi belong to the Kingdom[19] Fungi which has four phyla, 103 orders, 484 families and 4979 genera. About 205 new genera have been described from India, of which 32% were discovered by C. V. Subramanian of the University of Madras.[20][21] These features indicate a ten-fold increase in the last 80 years.
Flora of India

There are about 17500 taxa of flowering plants from India. The Indian Forest Act, 1927 helped to improve protection of the natural habitat.
National symbols of India OF (ANIMALS)
·         National animalRoyal Bengal Tiger

·         National birdPeacock